An Introduction to SYŃKATOKOPA

SYŃKATOKOPA
THE LANGUAGE OF MAGIC

Schachar Sakur Il’Sahasar

 

 1. Introduction. Syńkatokopa, or simply “Kopa” as it will be referred to from now on, is an SOV, majorly head-final, language with an ergative-absolutive alignment that is more fusional than it is synthetic.

 2. Setting. To the far west lies the subcontinent of Konoyne where the Kopan, or Konoynian, languages are widely spoken. Konoyne is widely, much like Europe when it comes to climate and linguistic diversity, majorly consisting of a single language family stemming from Kopa, sometimes called proto-konoynian.

 

3. Phonology.
3.1 Consonants. Except where marked by angle brackets, Kopa’s romanization matches the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet). Almost all of its consonants may cluster in groups of up to 3 per syllable. Kopa uses a significant amount of syllabic consonants that make up for its relatively small phonemic inventory. The consonants /m n h w r/ and /l/ may all be used syllabically. Kopa does not have any voiced or aspirated distinctions.

3.2 Vowels. Kopa has an unusually small vowel inventory with native speakers being able to distinguish between just two vowels and length with a front / back split, with a third vowel /a/ sometimes being used in words with historical significance such as Kopa, or in words where an /e/ would be preceded or followed by a “back” sound such as sache. This allophonic variation has plenty of exceptions, such as the word hecho and fek.

3.3 Word Order. Kopa is an SOV (subject-object-verb), majorly head final language, though both head directionalities are present in some phrases.

4. Nouns and Noun Phrases.
Article + adjective + noun (“the steep hill”)
Adjective + demonstrative + noun (“tall that tree”)
Adjective + nominal modifier + noun (e.g. “fast reindeer herds”)
Adjective + adjective + demonstrative + noun (e.g. “big green this tree”)

4.1 Number. There are two grammatical numbers in Kopa, singular and plural. The singular is formed by adding an ending that encodes all grammatical information. The plural is formed by adding the ych ending to the singular construction as well as the O’ prefix. This redundancy is only used in formal writing.

    Synk-es
    language-erg.sg.an

    O’Synk-es-ych
    pl-language-erg.sg.an-pl 

4.2 Definiteness. Definiteness in Kopa is marked by an auxiliary to the noun that agrees with its host noun in case and animacy. By default, nouns are indefinite.

    Hwole
    fox.abs
    A fox.

    Htr hwole
    def fox.abs
    The fox.

    Htoso
    gift.abs
    A gift.
    
    Ech htoso
    def gift.abs
    The gift.

4.3 Possession. Blanket possession in Kopa can be marked in two ways. The first and most common way to mark possession is through word order coupled with case marking. Owned or possessed nouns come after their possessor, generally.

    Whs wo menter e’krts.
    that.erg 1sg.poss dog.gen ind-cop
    That is my dog.

The second way to mark possession is in a blank of blank type phrase where the possessed is put before the possessor.

    Omo to Posachfot.
    Omo of river-front
    Omo of Riverfront

Alienable possessions are marked with the genitive case.

    Wo chonocher
    1sg.poss bag-gen
    My bag.

Inalienable possessions, features, and traits are marked with the dative case.

    Wo chekey lenko e’krts.
    1sg.poss hair.dat long-inan ind-cop
    My hair is long.

Possession of creation and possession of ownership are distinguished by adding the auxiliary particle ots before the owned noun in the context of creation.

    Omo’c ots fotser.
    omo-poss def.gen book.gen
    Omo’s book (that she wrote)

    Omo’c fotser.
    omo-poss book-gen
    Omo’s book (that she owns)

As seen in the previous example, the clitic 'c is used to mark nouns of ownership. It is separated purely orthographically to distinguish it from other suffixes.

    Host knso'c o'sacherych.
    def boat-abs-poss pl-man-gen-pl
    The boat's operators.

Possession of location, used for places a person frequently visits or has claimed as their own, are also distinguished from blanket ownership by use of the auxiliary particle fe.

    Whs Omo’c fe soner e’krtsnt.
    dem-erg omo-poss loc rock-gen ind-cop-an
    That is Omo’s rock. 

4.4 Noun Form. Nouns, like all words in Kopa, are made up of three parts: the meaningful root, the suffix which provides noun class information, and the ending which provides the remaining grammatical information such as case and number.

    Sef-e-s
    god-an-erg

4.5 Noun Class. Kopa has two noun classes, animate and neuter. Animate nouns are usually living things such as sache “person” or ever changing things and concepts like synke “language”. Neuter class nouns are nouns that make up the rest of the lexicon. Animate nouns always end in e while neuter nouns always end in o. This is a hard distinction that can even be used for noun derivation.

    Poso
    N.NT. piece, part

    Pose
    N.AN. member, participant, outcast

4.6 Adjectives. Adjectives must agree with the noun they modify in animacy, taking the e suffix for animate nouns and the o suffix for inanimate nouns. Adjectives come before the noun that they modify.

4.6.1 Numbers. Numbers are considered adjectives and as such agree with the noun they modify in animacy. Numbers come before the noun that they modify.

    One mente.
    One-an dog.abs
    One dog.

    Ore o’menteych.
    two pl-dog.abs-pl
    Two dogs.

Numbers in Kopa also have distributive, ordinal, and adverbial sequences which prefix me, s’, and l’ onto the cardinal number respectively.

    Ono
    One.inan

    Meono
    One_each.inan

    S’Ono
    First.inan

    L’Ono
    Once.inan

4.7 Demonstratives. Kopa’s proximal demonstratives agree with the thing they modify in number, animacy, and case.

    Has mente.
    that.abs dog.abs
    That dog.

    Hast o’menteych.
    that.pl.abs pl-dog.abs-pl
    Those dogs.

This set of demonstratives are also used in place of 3rd person personal pronouns, because Kopa lacks a traditional set.

 

4.7.1 Distal, and Interrogative Demonstratives. Distal and interrogative demonstratives are constructed differently than their proximal and medial counterparts. These demonstratives do not decline for case or animacy, they are simple compounds.

    Has e'krnt yeko?
    that ind-cop who
    Who is that?

4.8 Personal Pronouns. Kopa distinguishes 1st and 2nd person pronouns. It uses demonstratives for situations where a 3rd person is required.

 

4.9 Indefinite Pronouns and Modifiers. Indefinite pronouns such as all, many, most, or some come before, and need not agree with, the noun they modify.

    Omo esc o’krepych toyo peke.
    Omo all pl-grape.abs-pl here eat-pst
    Omo ate all of the grapes.

Their form does not change when used as a modifier or a pronoun. In the first example, mets “much” or “many is being used as a modifier while in the second example it is being used as a pronoun.

    Mets o’tcekleno koryétoro perto tefes.
    much pl-book.abs-pl reduce-pst price have-pres
    Many books are on sale.

    Mets pero tefes.
    much sale have
    Many are on sale.

4.9.1 Absence Indefinite Determiners. When the absent noun is specified in the sentence or plural the particle he is used. Absence determiners’ modified noun must be in the absolutive case.

    Toyo he o’krepych e’krntes.
    here neg pl-grape.abs-pl ind-cop
    Here are no grapes.

When the absent noun is unspecified or previously specified or singular the particle heono is used instead.

    Háy heono e’krntes.
    there none ind-cop
    There is none.

For the absence of people, hesache “nobody” is used instead.

    Toyo hesache e’krnt.
    here nobody ind-cop
    Nobody is here.

4.10 Negation. For noun negation, the particle he is placed before the noun.

    Folones prele he o’hwoleych peke.
    Bear.erg hare no pl-fox-pl eat-pst
    The bear ate the hare and not the foxes.

5. Adpositions. When adpositions are in the absolutive case, that indicates a form of movement, as opposed to when they are in the dative case which specifies a static location.

    Olf ech paltel.
    on.abs def table-loc
    Onto the table.

    Olfey ech paltel.
    on.dat def table-loc
    On the table.

5.1 Prepositions. The vast majority of Kopa’s adpositions come from nouns and so, are prepositions.

    Hem fotey chonon khter.
    1sg.erg at_front.dat house-loc cop
    In front of the house.

5.2 Postpositions. Some of Kopa’s adpositions come from verbs, such as olf and ot (on and off) which come from the words towards and away respectively. These adpositions come after the nouns they modify.

    Host knso olf oltmes.
    def boat.abs on go-imp
    Get on the boat. 

6. Verbs. Verbs in Kopa agree with the subject in person and animacy. They are highly fusional, conjugating for these prior with indicative (present, simple past, imperfect, and future), subjunctive (present, imperfect), and imperative forms.

6.1 Verb Class. There are three verb classes in Kopa, separated by transitivity. The first class is for transitive verbs.

    Eches hwe hwese.
    1sg.erg air.abs breathe
    I breathe air.

The second class is for intransitive verbs.

    Ech hweso.
    1sg.abs breathe
    I breathe.

The third and final class is for legacy and irregular verbs.

    Ech e’krts.
    1sg.abs cop
    I am.

6.2 Index Markers. Verbs agree with their subject in person and animacy.

6.3 Infinitives. Verb infinitives in Kopa are marked differently for each verb class, adding the en, ós, and er endings respectively.

    Peken.
    To eat.

    Keltós.
    To shine.

    Khter.
    To be.

6.3 Infinitive Phrases. Infinitive phrases can occur when describing actions without an intended participant. In this case, the verb is in its infinitive form.

    Khno o’elskrepoych tripen.
    Ten-inan pl-letter-pl write-inf
    To write ten letters.

6.4 Active Participles, Continuous and Perfect. The present active participle is used for expressing a continuous action that is non-habitual

    Host hwole hrcyok.
    def fox jump-pres.ptcp
    The fox is jumping.

The past active participle is used for expressing perfect or completed non-habitual actions and is often used in adverbial phrases.

    Host hwole hrchot.
    def fox jump-pst.ptcp
    The fox jumped.

    Host hwole welor hrchot.
    def fox tall jump-pst.ptcp
    The fox jumped high.

6.5 Evidentiality. Kopa does not have requisite evidentiality markers. It uses particles to distinguish sources of information from each other. These evidentiality markers are always put in the infinitive and their subject in the absolutive.

The prefix so “to hear” is used for when one had literally heard something happen, or for second-hand information, gossip, or situations that lack context.

    Omo esc o’krepoych sopeko.
    hear Omo all pl-grape.abs-pl hear-eat-pst
    Omo ate all the grapes. (second hand)

The prefix hech “to see” is used for when one had literally seen something happen, or for occasions with otherwise uncertain or unreliable evidence.

    Omo esc o’krepoych hechpeko.
    Omo all pl-grape.abs-pl see-eat-pst
    Omo ate all the grapes. (unreliable)

The prefix kets “to witness” is used for when one was in the room for the events that transpired, or for first hand evidence or general truths.

    Omo esc o’krepoych ketspeko.
    Omo all pl-grape.abs-pl witness-eat-pst
    Omo ate all the grapes. (witnessed)

The prefix ce “to think” is used to show doubt or uncertainty around the claim.

    Omo esc o’krepoych cepeko.
    Omo all pl-grape.abs-pl think-eat-pst
    Omo ate all the grapes. (uncertain)

6.5 Negation Strategies. For present tense constructions the ending ek is suffixed onto the verb to negate it.

    Ech meroyek.
    1sg.abs move-pst-neg
    I haven’t moved.

    Host hwole hrcyokek.
    def fox jump-pres.ptcp-neg
    The fox isn’t jumping.

For past tense constructions the ending he is suffixed onto the verb to negate it in addition to the particle kes which does not conjugate to agree with the verb it modifies.

    Host hwole kes hrchothe.
    def fox do jump-pst.ptcp-neg
    The fox didn’t jumped.

6.6 Tense and Aspect. Kopa has three grammatical tenses intertwined with its grammatical aspects. Present, past, and future tenses as well as the imperfect aspect are expressed through a series of suffixes attached to the verb.

    Htr folones ech o’peroych pekon.
    def.erg bear-erg def.abs pl-berry.abs-pl eat-pres
    The bear eats the berries.

    Htr folones ech o’peroych peke.
    def.erg bear-erg def.abs pl-berry.abs-pl eat-pst
    The bear ate the berries.
    
    Htr folones ech o’peroych peketc.
    def.erg bear-erg def.abs pl-berry.abs-pl eat-fut
    The bear will eat the berries.

    Htr folones ech o’peroych pekemt.
    def.erg bear-erg def.abs pl-berry.abs-pl eat-imperf
    The bear was eating the berries.

    Htr folones ech o’peroych pekyet.
    def.erg bear-erg def.abs pl-berry.abs-pl eat-ptcp
    The bear is eating the berries.

    Htr folones ech o’peroych pekhet.
    def.erg bear-erg def.abs pl-berry.abs-pl eat-pst.ptcp
    The bear finished the berries.

6.7 Antipassive. When putting a sentence into the antipassive, both arguments are put into the absolutive case. The object is followed by the verb which is then followed by the subject. Then finally, the particle olfotey is placed before the subject.

    Host twero esrhet olfotey has.
    def door.abs open-pst.ptcp by 3sg.abs
    The door was opened by them.

    Host knso schrhet olfotey Omo.
    def car.abs park-pst.ptcp by omo
    The car was parked by Omo.

The antipassive is also used when the subject is unknown.

    Host palto poshet.
    def table.abs break-pst.ptcp
    The table was broken.

6.8 Causative. The causative prefix in Kopa l, from “to make”, adds an argument to a verb’s structure, where a subject is the cause of someone else performing the action.

    Mondey Sanye folerej l’pekon.
    monday sanya vegetable.dat caus-eat-pres
    Monday made Sanya eat a vegetable.

    Hwek skekon l‘hehto yonne pekelc.
    moldy bread-erg caus-sick 2sg.dat eat-fut
    Eating moldy bread will make you sick.

6.9 Adverbial Phrases.
    
    Yore s’ore oltol.
    2sg.abs ints-early arrive
    You came too early.

6.10 Imperatives. Kopa’s imperative is expressed as a verb form. Often the agent is dropped and the patient is fronted. When formed in this way the imperative is considered the “soft imperative”.

Twero hefmes.
door close-imp
Close the door.

The “hard” or “harsh” imperative is formed by fronting the agent or the verb.

Yére, twero hefmes.
2sg.erg door close-imp
You, close the door.

Hefmes twero!
Close-imp door
Close the door!